Government in Republican China — Key Ideas to Explore

Confucian thought fertilizing age after age of China's social existence and Sun's purposeful ideological adaptations combined in his _San Min Chu I_ are shown in fundamental harmony. One distinction, however, stands out clearly. The Confucian tradition applied itself to a vaguely conceived but essentially unified world order. In the _San Min Chu I_ we encounter the elements of a national credo, self-assertive and militant.

The role of ideology in modern government has suffered curious neglect among students of politics for a considerable time. In periods of relative ideational saturation or stagnation, the mechanics of constitutional law or the give and take of legislative barter may distract from the basic framework of values and objectives giving shape to the political order. The rise of totalitarian systems relying heavily on ideological appeal and propaganda techniques has laid new stress upon those factors which predetermine political behavior. In China's vast experience we have the supreme example of ideological guidance so firmly established as to reduce to a minimum direct governmental intervention in the affairs of the individual. It is perhaps Sun Yat-sen's tragedy that for years he placed his faith in the magic of democratic verbiage imported from the West; a new orientation came to prevail after 1923, when at Sun's instance tested practitioners of mass organization from the Soviet Union began to overhaul and streamline the Kuomintang apparatus.

Government in China has become migratory as a result of Japan's advance. A mere description of its previous structure and functions would today have little relevance. But Dr. Linebarger has probed deeply enough into the foundations of Chinese political life to distinguish with uncommon discernment between the ephemeral and the durable. His long-range exposition transcends the exigencies of the hour and delineates the issues of China's future.

FRITZ MORSTEIN MARX. ADAMS HOUSE, HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

I am deeply indebted to the five gentlemen who have read the entire manuscript in some one of its stages. My father, Judge Paul Myron Wentworth Linebarger, has given me tireless help in this as in all my projects, for which I shall never be able to tender sufficient thanks. My teacher, Professor Harley Farnsworth MacNair of the University of Chicago, supplied numerous addenda and corrigenda of great value from his knowledge of modern Chinese history. Professor Arthur N. Holcombe of Harvard University suggested changes which have made the work more realistic. Assistance offered me by the Sinologue and philosopher, Professor H. H. Dubs of Duke University, was of the utmost value. Professor Paul H. Clyde, Duke University, provided many useful and significant hints, especially in the field of Sino-foreign relations.

I am also under obligation to Mr. J. C. Yang, Library of Congress, and Professor James R. Ware, Harvard University, for further suggestions; to Professor Charles Sidney Gardner and Dr. John Fairbank, Harvard University, and Professor George Kennedy, Yale University, for aid in the general course of my Chinese studies; to Professor Maria Magdalena Schoch, until recently of the University of Hamburg, Germany, for a critical reading of the revised manuscript; and to Miss Hazel Foster and Mr. M. F. Nelson for similar assistance. Mrs. W. M. Gibson, Miss Whitty Daniel, and my wife have helped in the preparation of the manuscript.

P. M. A. L. DURHAM, N. C., _August_, 1938.

FOREWORD BY FRITZ MORSTEIN MARX vii

INTRODUCTION 1 Duality or Confluence? 1 The Peculiarities of Old China 2 The Peculiarities of Modern China 6 The World Significance of Chinese Government 7 The Main Factors in Modern Chinese Government 9 The Approach 11

CHAPTER I CONFUCIANISM 13 The Ages before Confucius 13 The Ideology Called Confucian 15 Government in the Confucian Ideology 18 The Replacement of the Confucian Ideology 22 The Chief Movements in the Rebuilding of China 24 Confucianism in the Republic 26

CHAPTER II THE RISE OF NATIONALISM 31 Nationalism: Patriotic Anti-Manchu Phase 31 Nationalism: Revolutionary Modernist Phase 34 Nationalism: Republican Phase 36 Nationalism: Constitutionalist Phase 38 The Political Doctrines of Sun Yat-sen 41 Opportunist Movements and Their Anticonstitutional Effects 44 Christianity as a Political Force 48 Nationalism: Social Revolutionary Phase 50

CHAPTER III BATTLING CREEDS 57 Nationalism: Governing Phase 57 Independent Marxism in China 63 Japanese Efforts to Participate in Creating a New China 69 Patriotism: The United Front 72

CHAPTER IV WARRIORS 76 Military Rule and Political Economy 76 The Downfall of the Charioteers 79 Military Elements in Chinese Imperial History 83 The Military Organization of the Manchu Dynasty 86 The Army and the Republican Revolution 97

CHAPTER V CAUSES 102 The Age of the War Lords 102 The Age of Air Conquest 108 Governmental and Political Role of the Armies 113 War and the Agrarian Economy 115 Imperialism and Chinese Wars 119

THIRD PART GOVERNMENTS

CHAPTER VI THE EMPIRE 126 Government to the End of the Warring States 126 The Chinese Imperial Government 129 Family, Village, and _Hui_ 136 Governmental Changes Foreshadowing the Republic 139